Big Picture  

Comprehending written text is a multifaceted process that involves far more than a reader deciphering printed words on a page. To actively construct meaning, readers must continuously integrate new information with existing knowledge stored in memory. The definition of reading comprehension, put forth by the RAND Reading Study Group (2002), captures the relational aspect of reader and text and explains comprehension as "the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language (p.11)." This interactive process relies on background knowledge for direction, momentum, and depth. 

To actively construct meaning, readers must continuously integrate new information with existing knowledge stored in memory. 

Cognitive frameworks like Anderson and Pearson’s Schema-Theoretic View (1984) and the Construction Integration Model by Walter Kintsch (1988, 1998) highlight the pivotal role that background knowledge plays in comprehension processes. The Schema-Theoretic View points to the impact that relevant, well-developed background knowledge has on both comprehension and retention of information. The Construction Integration Model illustrates how the integration of background knowledge enables readers to move beyond static print constructs and explicit text information to formulate varied levels of inference, elaborated situation or mental models, and new knowledge.  

Narrowing the Focus: Knowledge Untangled  

Both the Schema-Theoretic View and Construction Integration Model grew from the research available at the time, and the role of background knowledge within comprehension has continued to be substantiated by research over the ensuing decades (Cervetti & Wright, 2020). In 2010, the U.S. Institute of Education Sciences launched the Reading for Understanding Research Initiative, which charged six teams of researchers to study the development of reading comprehension and the ways in which it might be improved for students in grades pre-K through 12. The work confirmed the critical role of knowledge to reading comprehension and outlined five relevant categories of knowledge:  

• Declarative – factual knowledge and conceptual understanding of a topic  
• Procedural – strategies for comprehension building, monitoring, and application   
• Conditional – knowing when, why, and how to apply specific knowledge  
• Disciplinary – specialized content knowledge and strategies within a specific academic area  
• Epistemic – knowledge about knowledge and knowing  

Pearson, P. D., Palincsar, A. S., Biancarosa, G., & Berman, A. I. (Eds.). (2020).  

While the Initiative’s work expanded upon the broad categories of knowledge relevant to reading comprehension, two types of knowledge that fall primarily within the declarative and disciplinary realms—topic and domain knowledge— likely provide the greatest support for the construction of well-elaborated mental models and learning from text. Topic knowledge refers to the specific subject or focus of a text, and domain knowledge encompasses knowledge of the broader discipline in which the topic falls (Cervetti & Wright, 2020). 

A pressing question for classroom instruction therefore becomes how best to capitalize on topic and domain knowledge to boost reading comprehension.   

Planning for Instruction: A Strategic Trio 

A deep dive into practices and techniques for leveraging background knowledge through instruction should address a strategic trio: knowledge activation, knowledge building, and knowledge integration (Hennessy, 2021). 

(Graphic adapted from Hennessy, 2010)

When planning for instruction, teachers will want to prioritize knowledge that supports the major understandings of the lesson or unit and then consider the instructional language and activities that utilize the elements of activation, building, and integration before, during, and after reading. Teachers can implement several activities, the selection and ratio of which will be lesson, unit, and student dependent. The matrix below is a sampling of practices and activities to keep background knowledge—and, ultimately, knowledge building—at the forefront of instruction. 

The significance of background knowledge to reading comprehension and understanding cannot be understated. By deliberately addressing the elements of activation, construction, and integration of knowledge, teachers can facilitate robust text engagement, strengthen comprehension, and spark and nurture intellectual growth.  

Watch and listen to READ Episode 50: How to…Integrate Background Knowledge and Writing into Reading Instruction with Sonia Cabell, PhD.

References:  

Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. In P. D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of Reading Research (pp. 255-291). Longman.   

Cervetti, G.N. & Wright, T.S. (2020) The Role of Knowledge in Understanding and Learning from Text. In Moje, E.B. et al. (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research, (Volume 5 pp. 237-260). Routledge.  

Hennessy, N. L. (2021). The reading comprehension blueprint: Helping students make meaning from text. Paul H. Brookes Publishing.     

Kintsch, W. (1988). The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction- integration model. Psychological Review, 95(2), 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.163  

Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge University Press.  

Pearson, P. D., Palincsar, A. S., Biancarosa, G., & Berman, A. I. (Eds.). (2020). Reaping the Rewards of the Reading for Understanding Initiative. Washington, DC: National Academy of Education.   

Snow, C. (2002). Reading for Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1465.html